During the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire faced a massive front of continuous conflicts with the Arabs, stretching from the highlands of Armenia and Cilicia to the Mediterranean and Sicily/southern Italy. Despite “breaking” the initial momentum of their opponents and stabilizing their land borders, two significant defeats led to the loss of naval dominance in the Mediterranean. One was the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily (827), and the other was the fall of Crete (824, 827/8) to the exiles from Andalusia. These losses marked an era where Saracen pirates raided the Christian northern shores of the Mediterranean almost permanently and at will. The establishment of the Emirate of Crete, in particular, served as a haven for Muslim pirate ships, providing opportunities for raids along the Aegean coast.

Several Byzantine attempts to recapture Crete immediately after its conquest, as well as a large-scale invasion in 842/43, failed with significant losses. In 853, under Emperor Michael III, the Byzantines undertook a bold venture, planning to raid the coasts of Egypt, the “hub” of pirate raids. According to Arab historian Al-Tabari, three fleets, totaling almost 300 ships, were prepared and sent for simultaneous attacks on Muslim naval bases in the Eastern Mediterranean. The exact objectives of the first two fleets are unknown, but the third, consisting of 85 ships and 5,000 men, aimed to capture Damietta, 180 km east of Alexandria and 200 km north of Cairo. The Byzantine commander, known only from Arabic sources as “Ibn Qatuna,” led the fleet, which appeared before Damietta on May 22, 853.

When the fleet arrived, the city’s garrison was absent, participating in festivities in the capital, Fustat. The inhabitants hastily abandoned the undefended city, which the daring Byzantines seized after minor resistance and subsequently set on fire. They captured vast amounts of loot and entire warehouses of weapons intended for the Emirate of Crete. They also took 600 Arabs and Copts as prisoners while another report mentions 1,820 Muslim women, 1,000 Coptic Christians, and 100 Jewish captives. After two days, demonstrating the absolute surprise of the Arab defense, Ibn Qatuna attempted to raid the city of Tinnis, near present-day Port Said (then Pelusium).

Fearing getting stuck in shallow waters and sand, he withdrew and headed towards the fortress of Ustum. Despite strong walls and iron gates, determined Byzantines captured it, finding dozens of catapults and other siege engines that, of course, turned to ashes. Upon regaining the city, the Muslims later realized that approximately 2,000 weapons of all kinds, as well as napha bombs, had ended up at the bottom of the sea. Subsequently, the Byzantines returned to imperial territories, after staying in the city for 2 days and 2 nights, a testament to the absolute surprise they had achieved, having executed their mission successfully. Naturally, the commander was immediately relieved of his duties and replaced by Uhaydallah Yahya Khaqan.

After six years, in 859, it was the turn of Pelusium to face the sword of the imperial forces. Although the raid, according to historian Basilios Chrystides, was “one of the most brilliant military operations” undertaken by the Byzantine army, it is completely ignored in Byzantine sources, possibly due to distorted testimonies influenced by their hostile attitude towards Emperor Michael III (842–867) and his reign.

If the conquests of Crete and Sicily triggered the recreation of a powerful navy, the raid on Damietta had the same effect for the Arabs of Egypt. An Arab chronicler notes that “from then on, they began to show serious interest in the fleet, and this became a matter of utmost importance in Egypt. Warships were built, and the pay of marines equaled that of soldiers on land. Only intelligent and experienced men were now accepted into service.”

The Greek population in Damietta contributed to the creation of the powerful navy of the Fatimid dynasty. The heavy blows of 853-859 within the internal bases of the Arabs, along with other epic victories like the Battle of Kardia in 872, another one near the city of Corinth in 873 and Kefalonia in 880, were soon repaid with successes by the converted Greeks, Leon of Tripoli and Damian of Tarsus – known in the Arab world as Rasik al-Wardami and Gulam Yasman, respectively – and the capture of Thessaloniki in 904. The response from the imperial corridors would also come half a century later, with the “uprooting” of the Saracens of Crete by their “White Death,” Nikephoros Phokas.

*According to the later historian Al-Makrizi, the Byzantines repeated a similar successful raid at the same location the following year.

Bibliography

M.Gordon/C.Robinson/E.Rowson/M.Fishbein, «The Works of Ibn Wadih al-Ya qubi», vol. I, publ. Brill, 2018.

«The History of al-Tabari», vol. XXXIV, publ. State University of New York Press; Annotated edition (June 1, 2007)