Cover photo: Artwork by the exceptional traditional ink-artist Nikolaos Thessalos Artworks in which it is depicted battle between Normans and Byzantines (specifically, it concerns the battle of Demetritzes (1185) which led to the immediate re-occupation of Thessalonica and ended the Norman threat to the eastern Roman Empire).

For more of history inspired artworks of Nikolaos Thessalos Artworks, Linktree : Nikolaos Thessalos Artworks

Text by Manolis Hatzimanolis and Historia Scripta.

In May 1081, the Norman Duke of Italy, Robert Guiscard, crossed the Adriatic Sea and invaded the Byzantine Empire. He had already entrusted the governance of Longobardia to his son Roger and had departed with his fleet, which consisted of 150 ships, including 60 horse transports and – according to Anna Komnene – 16.000 to 30,000 soldiers including 1,300 Norman knights. Among them was the son of Bohemond, the future Duke of Taranto and leader of the First Crusade.

He placed wooden towers on the largest ships, which he covered with hides. His aim was to besiege the city of Dyrrachium with his siege engines from both land and sea in order to terrify the morale of the defenders. He quickly reached the shore of Avlona and from there headed to Vothrento, one of the bays of Avlona. Then he divided his army into two divisions, one led by himself which would blockade Dyrrhachium by sea, and another led by his son, which would move overland.

The Eastern Roman Empire was a relatively weaker state after the destruction at Manzikert ten years earlier and the subsequent civil wars. The new Emperor, Alexios Komnenos, was an active and capable ruler, proven as a skilled strategist before his ascent to the throne. However, he was unprepared for the Norman invasion.

On his way, he encountered a fierce storm that caused severe damage to his fleet and resulted in the loss of several vessels. However, Roberto was not one to easily lose heart. He regrouped his entire fleet and remained near Avlona (today Vlore of Albania) for 7 days to unite with the land-based division. Once this was accomplished, he marched towards the city of Dyrrhachium. He encamped outside the city on June 17, 1081, having deployed his helepolises (siege towers) and a colossal tower, described as a “superstructure” by Anna Komnene.

The well-fortified city, situated on a narrow peninsula parallel to the coast, was defended by the Roman noble Georgios Palaiologos, a capable general who meticulously prepared the fortifications of the city, strategically placed his catapults at key points, maintained constant vigilance with the guards, and in the early days of the siege, conducted a small surprise sortie that inflicted significant losses on the Normans.

Recognizing his unfavorable position, Emperor Alexios undertook the search for allied forces and reinforcements. Thus, by providing various assurances, money, and several exchanges, he persuaded the Venetians to assist with their fleet and the Seljuk Sultan to provide him with 7,000 men. By September, Alexios had assembled a large army and marched towards Dyrrhachium.

According to Anna Komnene, Alexios had about 20,000 men, including troops from the Constantinople, Macedonia, and Thrace, Thessalian cavalry, 2,800 Manichaeans from present-day Bulgaria, 1,000 Varangian Guards (mostly Anglo-Saxons who escaped Norman conquest in the 1060s), and approximately 9,000 Seljuk and Pecheneg light cavalry (7.000 and 2.000 respectively). Balkan and Armenian infantry, as well as the last Byzantine garrisons in Asia Minor, completed the Empire’s forces. The withdrawal of the latter from Asia Minor resulted in the Seljuks conquering the last Byzantine Asian provinces.

Meanwhile, the Venetian fleet arrived, led by the Doge Domenico Selvo. The experienced Venetians in naval warfare quickly positioned themselves against the Norman fleet of the Voivode, tying their largest ships together with ropes side by side, while they hoisted the smaller vessels onto the masts, placing thick beams with sharp iron nails on them. The fierce Bohemond attacked vigorously, and a hard battle ensued. However, the Venetians’ trick succeeded, and one of the aforementioned sharp beams fell forcefully onto the deck of the Norman prince, who narrowly escaped death, sinking the ship. Encouraged, the Venetians continued the battle with greater confidence and drove the Normans to the camp of Robert, assisted by the Byzantines under the Palaiologos who attempted a sortie. Despite the critical moment, the Normans held their ground and repelled their opponents, averting the worst.

Unperturbed, Robert, “a man militant to the extreme”and “exceptionally inventive and perceptive.” as Anna Komnene vividly states, decided to continue the war. With his fleet defeated, supply lines cut off, and diseases plaguing his army, anyone else in his position would have either surrendered or certainly sought a diplomatic solution.

After repelling several more Byzantine sorties, in one of which the Palaiologos himself was wounded by an arrow, he attempted to capture the city with his massive tower. However, George Palaiologos was also a capable strategist. He had already constructed a wooden tower within the walls with a protruding beam that would obstruct the bridge of the Norman tower from opening. And so it happened exactly as planned. While the battle raged and the Norman tower attempted to disembark men onto the Byzantine walls, the bridge never opened. By the command of the Byzantine leader, quantities of highly flammable materials (naphtha, pitch, and sulfur) were launched onto the tower, and it ignited.

On October 15th, the Byzantine army under Alexios Komnenos arrived. The moment had come when the fate of the city of Dyrrachium would be decided. After 3 days, on October 18, 1081, the Norman and Byzantine armies clashed. The Varangians in the center initiated the attack, supported by a force of archers. An attack by Norman cavalry in the center, possibly intended to lure the Varangians into pursuit, was repelled by Byzantine archers. Similarly, the knights of the Norman right wing attacked the point where the left flank of the Varangians joined the Roman left wing.

Despite the pressure, the Varangians held their ground, and a counterattack by the Byzantine left led to the disintegration of the Italo-Norman forces. The majority of the Anglo-Saxons, mostly Varangians who may have experienced the Norman conquest of Britain, boldly pursued the retreating Norman right wing, which was chased to the coast. Only the intervention of Robert’s wife, described as “another Pallas, if not a second Athena,” inspired and reorganized the Norman units, saving them from complete collapse.

At this critical juncture, with the Norman right wing reassembling on the coast and the Varangians relieved from pursuit separated from the rest of the Roman army, Guiscard sent a mixed force of spearmen and archers from the center to strike the exposed flank of the Varangians. Unable to withstand the dual pressure without support, the Varangians were overwhelmed and sought refuge in the nearby Church of Archangel Michael. The surviving Varangians were burned alive when the Normans surrounded the church and set it ablaze. Meanwhile, the attempt by Georgios Palaiologos to leave Dyrrhachium and aid the Byzantine forces ended in failure, while the untrustworthy Serbian allies and Seljuk mercenaries, seeing the situation, abandoned the battle.

With the wings neutralized, the Byzantine army persevered in battle until the moment when the Guiscard, accompanied by his heavy cavalry, descended upon the enemy lines like a “winged knight”, breaking them apart. Alexios’ center that faced the stormy attack, broke its formation and collapsed. The Byzantine camp was captured, and the emperor displaying immense courage barely managed to escape the battlefield towards Ohrid, enduring the mockery of the victorious Normans and with several broken enemy lances protruding from his well-crafted heavy armor. It was a heavy defeat for the Byzantines, who lost at least 5,000 men, many prominent military commanders and notable individuals of noble lineage and most of the Varangian Guard.

After the fall of Dyrrhachium in February 1082, when Italian residents of the city opened the gates to the Normans, Guiscard returned to Italy, where he recalled to the aid of Gregory VII, besieged in Castel Sant’Angelo by Henry IV, leaving Bohemond to continue the campaign. Guiscard died four years later. Bohemond after some initial victories was eventually defeated by Alexios in a war of attrition in western Greece and was forced to return to Italy. The Venetians reoccupied Dyrrhachium on behalf of the Empire and were rewarded by the emperor with a trading quarter in Constantinople and exemption from customs duties. The victory in the war allowed the Empire to recover economically and militarily, marking the beginning of the Komnenian Restoration. The time for the Byzantine reconquest of Asia Minor had come.

Sources

Anna Komnene, “Alexiad”.

Bibliography

J. Birkenmeier, “The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081-1180″, publ. ‎ Brill Academic Pub, 2001.

J. Haldon, “The Byzantine Wars”, publ. Tempus, 2008.

F. Chalandon, “Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicile“, publ. Picard, Paris, 1907.

A. Christophilopoulou, “Byzantine History“, vol.C 1081-1204, 2001.