Cover photo: An excellent depiction of the Babylonian king Hammurabi by HistoryAIArt to whom I owe many thanks. You can check his exceptional and unique work here .

Hammurabi was the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty, reigning from around 1792 to 1750 BC. He is best known for his code of laws, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes, which has had a lasting influence on legal thought and practice.

Hammurabi ascended the throne in a period of considerable political fragmentation and conflict among the city-states of Mesopotamia. Under his rule, Babylon emerged as a significant power. Hammurabi is credited with unifying much of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule as he extended his empire by conquering the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He overthrew Ishme-Dagan I, the ruler of Assyria, and compelled Ishme-Dagan’s son, Mut-Ashkur, to pay tribute. Through these conquests and political maneuvers, Hammurabi brought nearly all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian control. He did so through a combination of military conquests and strategic alliances, thereby transforming Babylon from a relatively minor city-state into a major empire.

One of Hammurabi’s most notable achievements was the compilation of his eponymous code, the Code of Hammurabi. ¹This code was inscribed on a stele, a large stone monument, and placed in a public location so that all could see it, although literacy was not widespread. The Code of Hammurabi consists of 282 laws covering various aspects of daily life, including trade, labor, property, family, and criminal justice. These laws provide insights into the values and social structures of ancient Mesopotamian society. The code is often remembered for its principle of retributive justice, encapsulated in the phrase “an eye for an eye.”²

The Code of Hammurabi consists of approximately 4,130 lines, the prologue consists of 300 lines and the epilogue comprises 500 lines. These sections form a ring composition around the laws, although there is no visual separation distinguishing them from the laws. Both the prologue and epilogue are written in a poetic style. It was groundbreaking in several ways. It represented one of the first attempts to codify and standardize laws in written form, making them less arbitrary and more predictable. This legal uniformity helped to stabilize society and promote fairness, at least among the free male population. However, the code also enshrined social inequalities, as punishments for offenses varied depending on the social status of both the victim and the perpetrator. For example, harming a nobleman carried a stiffer penalty than harming a commoner.

There are laws that are against the administration of law (false charges/false testimony, falsification of judgement), for property, land, commerce and houses³ , assault as the famous “If an awīlum (awīlum were the citizens who owned land in their own right and depended neither on the palace nor on the temple) should blind the eye of another awīlum, they shall blind his eye”, professional men⁴, agriculture, rates of hire⁵ and also for slaves⁶.

Hammurabi’s legacy extends beyond his code. A significant collection of contract tablets from the reigns of the Babylonian king and his successors has been discovered, alongside 55 of Hammurabi’s personal letters. These letters provide a detailed look into the everyday difficulties of ruling an empire. They highlight his management of floods, implementation of calendar corrections, and supervision of Babylon’s extensive livestock herds. He was also a capable administrator who improved the infrastructure of his empire. He undertook extensive building projects, including the construction of temples, city walls, and irrigation canals, which were crucial for agriculture in the arid Mesopotamian landscape. These public works helped to enhance the prosperity and stability of his realm. Hammurabi also promoted trade and standardized weights and measures, facilitating economic transactions and integration within his empire.

The Babylonian king’s reign marked a high point in the history of ancient Mesopotamia. His efforts at legal reform and state-building laid the foundations for the future development of Babylonian civilization. The principles enshrined in his code influenced not only subsequent Mesopotamian rulers but also legal systems in the wider ancient Near East and even beyond. Elements of Hammurabi’s legal philosophy can be seen in later legal traditions, including Roman law and, indirectly, modern legal systems.

Hammurabi clearly supported a controlled economy. The law regulated the fees and wages for various professions, including veterinarians, home builders, boat builders, field laborers, herdsmen, and carpenters. Agricultural workers were compensated with grain, whereas city workers received silver. Daily rental rates were set for wagons, drivers, oxen, donkeys, and goats. For laborers employed for five months, their daily wage was reduced to account for the job security provided by consistent employment.

In summary, Hammurabi was a pivotal figure in ancient history, best known for his legal code that sought to bring order and justice to his empire. His achievements in unifying Mesopotamia, codifying laws, and improving infrastructure had a profound and lasting impact on the region. His legacy is a testament to the enduring importance of law and governance in human societies. The Code of Hammurabi remains a significant milestone in the history of legal thought, reflecting the complexities and challenges of maintaining order in a diverse and dynamic society.

Source:

D. Charpin, “Hammurabi of Babylon”, publ. I.B. Tauris, 2012.

P. Dyneley, “The Code of Hammurabi”, publ. The American Journal of Theology, 2013.

Hammurabi, “Codex Hammurabi”

C. J. Gadd, “The Cambridge Ancient History: Hammurabi and the end of his dynasty”, publ. Cambridge University Press, 1965.

Footnotes:

1. The monument on which the Code of Hammurabi is engraved was found in December, 1901, and January, 1902, on the acropolis of Susa by an expedition sent out by the French government under the director general, M. de Morgan. ↩︎
2. Lex talionis in Latin, a commandment found in the Book of Exodus (21:23–27) expressing the principle of reciprocal justice measure for measure. ↩︎
3. Some examples are these: “If a man breaks into a house, they shall kill him and hang him (!?) in front of that very breach” and “If a man has a debt lodged against him, and the storm-god Adad devastates his field or a flood sweeps away the crops, or there is no grain grown in the field due to insufficient water—in that year he will not repay grain to his creditor; he shall suspend performance of his contract [literally “wet his clay tablet”] and he will not give interest payments for that year“. ↩︎
4. Surgeons, veterinary surgeons, barbers (!), builders, shipbuilders and boatmen. ↩︎
5. “If a man steal a man’s son who is a minor, he shall be put to death” and “If a man aid a male or female slave of the palace or a male or female slave of a freeman to escape from the city gate, he shall be put to death.” ↩︎
6. If a slave should declare to his master, “You are not my master”, he (meaning the master) shall bring charge and proof against him that he is indeed his slave, and his master shall cut off his ear“. ↩︎