Mongol warrior, the terror of every army from Novgorod of Russia, Poland, and the Italian borders, to Asia Minor, the gates of Egypt, the distant shores of Korea, and southern China. The Mongols of the 13th and 14th centuries were the most formidable warriors in Eurasia. Through an extraordinary combination of speed, agility, tactics, and terror, Mongol troops swept across Eurasia, remaining undefeated in every war for 132 years. They conquered everything from China to modern-day Poland and Hungary, while simultaneously creating a period of relative peace across the continent (known as the Pax Mongolica). This refers to the relative peace and stability across Eurasia under Mongol rule, particularly facilitating trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Road.

Their ability to live away from their base and in extreme conditions, far from their animals (especially using mare’s milk*), made their armies far less dependent on traditional supply convoys than the classical armies of the time. In some cases, such as during the invasion of Hungary in early 1241, they covered up to 100 miles (160 km) in a single day¹—something no other armies of that era had achieved, and something still extremely difficult even by today’s standards.

“..They ride fast bound unto their horses, which are not very great in stature, but exceedingly strong, and maintained with little prouender (provender). They use to fight constantly and valiantly with javelins, maces, battle-axes, and swords. But especially they are excellent archers, and cunning warriors with their bows. Their backs are slightly armored, that they may not flee. They withdraw not themselves from the combat, till they see the chief Standard of their General give back. Vanquished, they ask no favour, and vanquishing, they show no compassion..” said the medieval Italian diplomat, Catholic archbishop and explorer Giovanni da Pian del Carpine at his “Ystoria Mongalorum”.

The army was forged through the reforms implemented by Genghis Khan. After uniting the Mongol tribes, Temujin (his Mongolian name) decided that the hierarchies within the diverse mix of Mongol tribes would be detrimental to military development and effectiveness. As a result, he mixed people from different tribes in every military unit, creating equality among soldiers. This forced them to achieve incredible feats to be promoted in the military ranks, as family ties could no longer secure career success; meritocracy was the guiding principle.

At the same time, Genghis Khan also introduced a new troop grouping system known as the decimal system. As the name suggests, men were grouped in multiples of ten: “arban” for groups of 10, “zun” for 100, “minghan” for 1,000, and “tumen” for 10,000. Each Mongol soldier typically maintained 3 or 4 horses. Changing horses often allowed them to travel at great speed for days without stopping. When one horse tired, the rider would dismount and switch to another. Although the “used” horse still had to travel, it would do so without the weight of the rider.

The Mongol armies were trained as mounted archers (with 6 out of 10 being light cavalry and the rest heavily armored), cavalrymen in assault roles, and unitary tactics (using their system) in formations, feigned retreats, and maneuvers repeatedly. This training was maintained through excellent, but not overly harsh or irrational, discipline, recognizing that excessive discipline would lead to a decline in morale. “..The men look after nothing at all but their arrows, though they give a little attention to the flocks. They hunt and practise archery : for all of them from the youngest to the oldest are good archers, and as soon as their children are two or three years old they begin to ride, to manage horses, and to race. And they give them bows according to their age, and teach them to shoot : they are very agile and daring..”²

The Mongols scouted, monitored, and carefully spied on their enemies before any invasion. Before the invasion of Europe, Batu and Subutai sent spies for nearly ten years into the heart of Europe, mapping the old Roman roads, overseeing trade routes, and assessing the ability of each state/kingdom to resist invasion.

Given that most of the Mongols’ livestock were mares, they were able to live off the milk or dairy products of their horses as they moved through enemy territory. In dire circumstances, the Mongol warrior could pierce and drink a little blood from his mare.³ “..armed with plates of iron, short and stout, thickset, strong, invincible, indefatigable, their backs unprotected, their breasts covered with armour ; drinking with delight the pure blood of their flocks, with big, strong horses..” is written at William of Rubruck’s Account of the Mongols. He could survive an entire month just by drinking mare’s milk combined with her blood in extremely harsh conditions, dissolving any concept of classic logistics.⁴


Sources:

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine,“Ystoria Mongalorum”, 1240s.

William of Rubruck, “The Journey Of William Of Rubruck”, 1250s.


Footnotes:

1. The claim that Mongol warriors could cover 100 miles (160 km) in a day is supported by historical records, particularly during the 1241 invasion of Hungary. This was due to their multiple horse strategy. While extreme, it was not the norm for their entire campaign but was achieved during specific instances. ↩︎
2. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (643) ↩︎
3. Piercing a horse’s vein for blood as sustenance in desperate conditions is also attested, though it wasn’t a common practice but rather a survival tactic. ↩︎
4. Nevertheless, in summer, so long as lasts their cosmos, that is to say mare’s milk, they care not for any other food. So then if it happens that an ox or a horse dies, they dry its flesh by cutting it into narrow strips and hanging it in the sun and the wind, where at once and without salt it becomes dry without any evil smell. With the intestines of horses they make sausages better than pork ones, and they eat them fresh. The rest of the flesh they keep for winter. (Source: The Journey Of William Of Rubruck) ↩︎