Cover photo: Map showing the territorial extent of the British Empire in 1886. Collection: PJ Mode Collection of Crane Walter (1845-1915).

During the 19th century, Great Britain became the dominant country in Europe. There was no doubt that it was strong enough to stand on its own without assistance, while also having the advantage of geographical isolation. Beyond this, it also benefited from stable leaders who pursued its national interest without sentimentality. This approach allowed Britain to act flexibly and pragmatically, responding to situations as they arose without being bound by rigid alliances or ideologies. This adaptability was crucial in maintaining Britain’s dominance, enabling it to navigate the complex landscape of international relations effectively.

Some of the reasons of Britain’s dominance were pioneering advancements in technology and production methods that transformed it into the “workshop of the world”,¹ unmatched naval power -a common saying of the time was “Britain rules the waves and keeps the peace,” that reflected this naval superiority. As Lord Palmerston asserted, “Our navy is our defense and protection against invasion.”– the Empire’s vast colonial holdings which provided critical raw materials such as cotton, tea, and rubber, fueling British industries and economic growth², political stability provided by Britain’s constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system ³ and propably cultural influence: “The British empire, and the language we speak, is a heritage for all mankind” Winston Churchill famously remarked, establishing British soft power worldwide.

“When asked what our policy is, the only answer I can give is that we intend to do what we think is best in each case as it arises, with the interests of our country as our guiding principle,” explained Palmerston⁴ regarding the British definition of national interest. (..) “We have no eternal allies, nor permanent enemies.” Great Britain did not need an official strategy because its leaders understood the British interest so well and intimately that they could act spontaneously in each new situation, confident that the people would follow them. They preferred to wait for real situations (rather than define a casus belli or clarify a positive objective), something that the countries of continental Europe were unable to adopt, as they themselves were the real situations.

By preventing any single country from becoming too powerful on the European continent, Britain aimed to maintain stability and protect its own interests. This principle was evident in Britain’s shifting alliances, such as its support for various European powers at different times to counterbalance the influence of France, Russia, or Germany.

For example, Britain aimed to curb Russian expansion through its alliance with France during the Crimean War (1853-1856), showcasing its strategic use of alliances to maintain the balance of power. Another example isthe establishment of the Concert of Europe, an international system designed to maintain the balance of power and prevent the resurgence of a single dominant power in Europe following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.

Also the “Great Game”, the term that was used to describe the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia. This geopolitical struggle was driven by Britain’s desire to protect its interests in India, the jewel in the British crown, from Russian expansion. Regarding the last issue we can add the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. A strategic partnership which aimed at countering Russian expansion in East Asia. This alliance marked a significant shift in British foreign policy, as it was the first time Britain entered into a formal military alliance with a non-European power.

British leaders often framed their policies in terms of moral and civilizational missions, even as they pursued pragmatic national interests. People saw the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and slavery itself in 1833 as moral imperatives, yet these actions also served to weaken rival economies that relied on slave labor. This approach allowed Britain to justify its actions on the world stage while simultaneously advancing its own strategic interests.

The United States, which would come to the forefront in the next century, believed they had a “missionary work” to support democratic institutions around the world, spearheaded by Wilsonianism⁵. Global stability and peace would come with the spread of the democratic system, according to the US’s standards of moral superiority and values. Wilsonian ideals significantly influenced U.S. foreign policy after World War II, particularly through the establishment of the United Nations and the promotion of democracy and economic stability in Europe.

In contrast to the US, however, Great Britain had no such concerns. “The unwavering principle on which England bases its practice is to recognize as the representative of every nation that which each nation has freely chosen to represent it,” Palmerston explicitly stated in 1848.

Sources:

H. Kissinger, “Diplomacy,” publ. Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Hobsbawm, E. J., “The Age of Empire: 1875-1914.”, publ. Vintage Books, 1994.

P. J. Cain & A. G. Hopkins, “British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914”, publ. Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd, 1993.

N. Ferguson, “Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World”, publ. Penguin Books, 2004.

1. By 1850, Britain was producing over half of the world’s coal and manufactured goods. Innovations such as James Watt’s steam engine (1775), Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule (1779), and Edmund Cartwright’s power loom (1785) significantly increased efficiency and output. As historian Eric Hobsbawm noted, “The factory system was one of the great innovations of the 19th century, allowing Great Britain to surge ahead of other nations in industrial production.” ↩︎
2. Benjamin Disraeli (British Prime Minister) highlighted the empire’s significance, stating, “No investment is so good as the purchase of a fertile and wealthy colony.” The economic benefits derived from these colonies were substantial, with colonial trade accounting for nearly 20% of Britain’s imports by 1900. ↩︎
3. William Ewart Gladstone (British Prime Minister)articulated the importance of stable governance, saying, “The first principle of good government is order and security.” Such stability enabled Britain to navigate through the century without the major internal upheavals that plagued many other European countries, ↩︎
4. Politician who served as Prime Minister and in many other roles such as minister, MP, etc. ↩︎
5. Wilsonianism is named after President Woodrow Wilson, who served from 1913 to 1921. It is characterized by the promotion of democracy, self-determination, open diplomacy, and the establishment of international institutions to maintain peace and order. ↩︎