Cover photo: Venetian soldiers at the end of the 15th century. On the left, an archer, in the center a pedestrian with an offensive weapon, a halberd (a lance with a blade at the end), while he has a breastplate, a helmet and a shield. The soldier on the right has a sword, shield and breastplate. Everyone carries straws. (Painting by the Italian painter of the Venetian school Vittore Carpaccio).

The collapse of Byzantine power in western Anatolia and the Aegean in the late 13th century, along with the abolition of the Byzantine navy in 1284, created a power vacuum that the Turkish tribes quickly exploited, flooding the region. The neglect of the region around Nicaea, which became a political center under Michael VIII Palaiologos, combined with the aggressiveness of the Catalan Grand Company and the Alans, marked the definitive decline of the free Hellenism in Asia Minor. On the other hand, Byzantium’s mortal enemies, the Seljuk Turks, began to decline, especially after the Mongol invasion in 1243, resulting in the emergence of various Turkish emirates. Two of the most powerful ones, the Emirate of Mentese based in the region of Miletus and the Emirate of Aydin in the area of Ephesus and Smyrna, drew the attention of Western powers, especially Venice, which placed great emphasis on transshipment trade.

Using the knowledge and experience of local Greek sailors, the Turks began to act as pirates in the Aegean, targeting the mosaic of city-states and duchies that had emerged. Crete, under Venetian rule since 1211, formed the Duchy of Candia (Heraklion), and Naxos, or the Duchy of the Archipelago, became important centers of Venetian influence. The Genoese presence, represented by the Zaccharias family, dominated Chios until 1329 when it was recaptured by the Byzantines. In Attica, the Catalans governed the Duchy of Athens from 1311, aligning themselves under the Aragonese crown. The Palatine County of Kefalonia and Zakynthos fell under the Andegavians in 1325. The Knights Hospitaller had settled on Rhodes since 1310, extending their influence to surrounding islands. Lastly, Cyprus, a kingdom since 1192, was governed by the Lusignan dynasty. The activities of Turkish pirates intensified, taking advantage of conflicts between the two major maritime powers, Venice and Genoa.

The Turks of Aydin maintained good relations with the Catalans. The renewal of their alliance in 1325 worsened the relations between the latter and their rivals, the Venetians. This specific emirate, which had previously closely collaborated with the deputy ruler of the Duchy of Athens, Alfonso Fadrique, began to gain increased power. This prompted the opponents to form a common front, with Andegaviano John of Gravina, Chios lord Martino Zaccharia, and Nicolo Sanudo of the Duchy of Naxos joining forces with the Venetians to create a temporary anti-Turkish alliance.

The attacks of the Turks on Chalcis and Naxos intensified, leading the Venetians to organize joint operations against the Turks. The Latin Archbishop of Thebes went to Venice to seek help and additional Western forces. In April 1331, the Venetians formed an alliance with the Catalans, and in the same month, Marino Morosini, Duke of Candia, signed a treaty with the head of the Mentese emirate, Orhan. Trade routes reopening in Asia Minor bolstered Venice’s plans to focus on countering Aydin.

Preparations and Clash

The idea of a crusade, which was on the horizon in 1327, gained further strength when Pope John XXII proposed to the French King Philip VI to organize one with the participation of other powerful Western states. The Venetians suggested sending 20,000 knights and 50,000 infantry, which they considered a necessary force for success, along with their contribution of 100 warships and transports. They tried to draw the attention of the French king by stating that the destruction of the Turks was a necessary precondition for the recovery of the Holy Land. The French king’s refusal led to the failure of the plans. The Turks continued raids at such intensity that, by March 1332, the Duke of Naxos, Nicolo Sanudo, made a separate treaty, followed by Chalcis. This tactic marked the first stage of Turkish expansion. The relatively loose subjection eventually led to the loss of independence through annexation.

Venice’s response was to seek allies among the Turkish beyliks, and the Turks from the Germyan and Menteshebeyliks, based in Kutahya, responded positively. In the war against the Turks of Aydin, Venice deployed 10 galleys in November 1333, led by Marino Morosini. The 14th-century chronicler Petro Iustiniani reports that he caused several successful raids against the Turks. These events excited the Venetians, who formed a new fleet of 10 galleys, 12 transports, and other smaller vessels, this time placing Pietro Zeno, the Venetian bailo (ambassador), at the helm of the fleet. In early March 1334, King Hugh IV of Cyprus officially joined the alliance of the “Holy League” with 6 galleys.

The proposed campaign was considered to be a primum passagium (preliminary campaign) that would prepare the ground for a fully organized crusade. Minor clashes followed in Monemvasia and southwest of Mystras. The points of conflict clearly show how uncontrollable the Turkish pirates had become, reaching the borders of the Ionian Sea. The Latin counterattack forced the Turks to return to the shores of Asia Minor. In October 1334, in the Gulf of Adramyttium in the northwestern part of Asia Minor in the region of Troad, they encountered the formidable fleet from the Emirate of Pergamon, led by Soutzos al-Din Yaxi, the son of the emir, who, as Kantakouzenos informs us, was often involved in slave trade. In the fierce clash that followed, the Turks were defeated overwhelmingly, losing 100-150 galleys and smaller ships, as well as 3,000-5,000 men. The survivors and the leaders of the Turks were massacred.

After their victory, the Venetians planned their next moves. However, the death of Pope John XXII canceled all preparations. His successor, Benedict XII, was not an enthusiastic supporter of crusades, so the organized efforts of the “Holy League” were interrupted, although the Venetians continued the war with the Turks. The disaster at Adramyttium halted the pirate raids of the Turks in the Aegean, and they chose to reconcile by signing a new treaty with Venice in 1337. This time, the emirates of Menteshe and Aydin agreed with the Duke of Candia, Marino Morosini, not to continue Venetian raids on the coasts of their emirates in exchange for significant economic and trade benefits.

Sources:

P.W. Edbury, “The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191-1374,” translated by A. Nicolaou, Papadimas Publishers, Athens, 2003.

J. Harris, C. Holmes, E. Russell, “Byzantines, Latins and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World After 1150,” Oxford, 2012.

K.M. Setton, “The Papacy and the Levant (1204-1571),” Vol. I, “The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,” American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1976.

E. Zachariadou, “Trade and Crusade, Venetian Crete and the Emirates of Menteshe and Aydin (1300-1415),” Venice, 1983.

L. Paul, “L’ Emirat d’ Aydin, Byzance et l’ Occident, Recherches sur la Gested’Umur Pacha,” Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1957.

A. Luttrell, “The Hospitallers in Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece and the West 1291-1440,” Great Britain and USA, 1979.