Eventually, as the intensity of the assaults declined, the Spanish forces left their defensive positions and counterattacked, forcing the attackers to withdraw and ending the immediate fighting.

The Tokugawa shogunate interpreted the uprising as confirmation of Christianity’s destabilizing potential, subsequently enforcing a comprehensive ban on the religion.

Yi was aware that morale among his sailors was low, and many feared the overwhelming odds. Nevertheless, he took the initiative by advancing with his flagship, a panokseon-class warship designed...